In this article, I’ll go through my process of writing a simple Tic-Tac-Toe game in Golang. Error handling, closures, iota as well as other golang features are used to create the game.
Before we start: After some more research to the language, It seems that Go is really not that different from order C-family programming languages. So I decided that it would not be worthwhile to document every single detail of Golang in my blog posts, since there’s a lot of resources readily available on the internet which go much deeper into the Go language features than my blog will ever be able to do. So it doesn’t make much sense for me to write about everything, a quick Google search will usually work better. As a result, this article series will now be focused on my experiences of making experimental and/or actual project with Golang. The goal is to show Golang’s features and neuances.
Full code on Github
Define the board and game state
The first thing we want to do is define the board on which the game will be played on.
The game Tic-Tac-Toe has a 3*3 board. Each of the squares can be one of three states: it can be a X or a O, or it can be just empty. We define these states with type alias and const definition, which is Go’s equivalance of enum:
// what kind of piece is on a certain square
type squareState int
const (
none = iota
cross = iota
circle = iota
)
iota represents successive integer constants 0,1,2,….
It resets to 0 whenever the keyword const appears in the source code and increments after each const specification.
In our case, none would be 0, cross would be 1 and circle would be 2.
Noted that all the iota(except for the first one) can be omitted and still have the same effect.
With suqareState we can represent the state of one square, now we can use a 3*3 array to represent the whole board.
var board [3][3]squareState
For each turn, we also need to know whose turn it is. So we introduce another variable to represent that:
代码语言：javascript复制type player int
var turnPlayer player
We don’t have to define constants again, the constants defined for the squareState before can be used.
This is when we run into the discussion about whether Golang’s decision to not include C/C style enum keyword had made the language difficult to use in some cases. Some have argued that the lack of compile-time type checking makes the code more prone to mistakes.
constnames being in the same package scope also can cause some confusion. Since it’s not always immediately obvious which enum a const name belongs to when you see one.
The last thing for us to do is wrap them (the board & whose turn is it) up as the current game state struct:
代码语言：javascript复制// current state of the game
type gameState struct {
board [3][3]squareState
turnPlayer player
}
Storing them as saparate global variables will work as well, but using struct is usually a better practice.
It makes the code easier to understand. And also enables us to do some other cool things.
(eg. an “undo” feature, which we will talk about later)
Draw the board
Next, we need a way to show our board on the screen. We use fmt to draw the board to the terminal.
The code is pretty standard:
代码语言：javascript复制// define a method for struct type `gameState`
func (state *gameState) drawBoard() {
for i, row := range state.board {
for j, square := range row {
fmt.Print(" ")
switch square {
case none:
fmt.Print(" ")
case cross:
fmt.Print("X")
case circle:
fmt.Print("O")
}
if j != len(row)-1 {
fmt.Print(" |")
}
}
if i != len(state.board)-1 {
fmt.Print("n------------")
}
fmt.Print("n")
}
}
(Notice how break is not required in switch cases in Go.)
Now we test our drawBoard function with a main function like this:
func main() {
state := gameState{}
state.board[0][1] = cross
state.board[1][1] = circle
state.drawBoard()
}
which yields:
代码语言：javascript复制$ go run main.go
| X |
------------
| O |
------------
| |
Hooray! It works.
Game logic
Now it’s time for the game logic.
The rule of tic-tac-toe is really simple. The whole game can be discribed as:
代码语言：javascript复制for {
draw_the_board()
row, column := enter_position_to_place_mark()
place_mark(row, column)
if any_one_has_won_the_game() == true {
break
}
next_turn()
}
Placing mark
So far we can already draw the board, but we don’t really have a proper way to place a mark on a square.
When we are testing our drawBoard function, we modified the board field of gameState directly, but that’s not good enough for our game logic. We need it to be able to do a little bit more, eg. checking if a square has already had a mark on it.
Therefore we write a function to do just that:
代码语言：javascript复制// define error types
type markAlreadyExistError struct {
row int
column int
}
type positionOutOfBoundError struct {
row int
column int
}
// implement Error()
func (e *markAlreadyExistError) Error() string {
return fmt.Sprintf("position (%d,%d) already has a mark on it.", e.row, e.column)
}
func (e *positionOutOfBoundError) Error() string {
return fmt.Sprintf("position (%d,%d) is out of bound.", e.row, e.column)
}
// place a mark at a certain position
func (state *gameState) placeMark(row int, column int) error {
if row < 0 || column < 0 || row >= len(state.board) || column >= len(state.board[row]) {
return &positionOutOfBoundError{row, column}
}
if state.board[row][column] != none {
return &markAlreadyExistError{row, column}
}
state.board[row][column] = squareState(state.turnPlayer) // the actual "placing"
return nil // no error
}
You can see that aside from error handling, the code above really does nothing more than changing state.board[row][column].
However, in real projects, as the project grow more and more complex, instead of directly setting the value everywhere, using a function to do it allows for more flexibility and would pay off in the long run.
The code above defined two new error types markAlreadyExistError and positionOutOfBoundError. For them to be considered an error type, their respective Error() function must be implemented. That’s called composition (compared to inheritance).
Switching turn
Now we can place a mark on a square, what do we need next?
Well, the game has 2 players and they take turns to place marks. So after a mark is placed, we would like to switch whose mark will be placed on the next placeMark()
We do that by adding a nextTurn() function, which sets state.turnPlayer to the other player.
type gameResult int
const (
noWinnerYet = iota
crossWon
circleWon
draw
)
func (state *gameState) whosNext() player {
return state.turnPlayer
}
func (state *gameState) nextTurn() {
if state.turnPlayer == cross {
state.turnPlayer = circle
} else {
state.turnPlayer = cross
}
}
whosNext() and nextTurn() are pretty straightforward and does exactly what it says to do.
Checking for winner
So for each and every single turn, we need to check if anyone has won the game by placing a mark. This is when we get into a more interesting part of this project.
The naive approach
You might be tempted to do something like this:
代码语言：javascript复制func (state *gameState) checkForWinner() gameResult {
// check vertical
if state.board[0][0] == state.board[0][1] &&
state.board[0][1] == state.board[0][2] &&
state.board[0][2] != none {
return gameResult(state.board[0][0])
}
if state.board[1][0] == state.board[1][1] &&
state.board[1][1] == state.board[1][2] &&
state.board[1][2] != none {
return gameResult(state.board[1][0])
}
if state.board[2][0] == state.board[2][1] &&
state.board[2][1] == state.board[2][2] &&
state.board[2][2] != none {
return gameResult(state.board[2][0])
}
// check horizontal
if state.board[0][0] == state.board[1][0] &&
state.board[1][0] == state.board[2][0] &&
state.board[2][0] != none {
return gameResult(state.board[0][0])
}
if state.board[0][1] == state.board[1][1] &&
state.board[1][1] == state.board[2][1] &&
state.board[2][1] != none {
return gameResult(state.board[0][1])
}
if state.board[0][2] == state.board[1][2] &&
state.board[1][2] == state.board[2][2] &&
state.board[2][2] != none {
return gameResult(state.board[0][2])
}
// check diagonal
// ...
return noWinnerYet
}
This DOES work, but it’s a naive way of doing it. It’s long, verbose, and hard to modify. The board can also only be 3x3 and can not be expanded easily.
Using for-loops
A way better solution would be to use loops:
代码语言：javascript复制func (state *gameState) checkForWinner() gameResult {
CheckHorizontal:
for _, row := range state.board {
var lastSquare squareState = row[0]
for _, square := range row {
if square != lastSquare {
continue CheckHorizontal // continue with label, affects the outer loop instead of the inner one
}
lastSquare = square
}
if lastSquare == cross {
return crossWon
} else if lastSquare == circle {
return circleWon
}
}
// check for verticals and diagonals...
return noWinnerYet
}
// (the complete code will be about 4 times as long as the code shown)
By doing it like this, we can handle board of any dimension. But due to the way the board is stored(board[row][column]), checking vertical lines using nested for-loops isn’t as intuitive as checking horizontal lines. And it gets even trickier when it comes to checking for diagonal lines.
Also, the function is still repetitive since the actual “checking” part inside each loop:
代码语言：javascript复制 if lastSquare == cross {
return crossWon
} else if lastSquare == circle {
return circleWon
}
are the same.
A better approach
In order to know if anyone has won the game, we have to check for 3 horizontal lines, 3 vertical lines and 2 diagonal lines. We can think of the process of checking each line like this:
- for each iteration, check if
next square(x a, y b)has the same mark as thecurrent square(x, y) - set current square position to
(x a, y b) - repeat the process until different marks between iteration was found or a border was hit.
This is a generalized description of all the for-loops we discussed before. By using different delta (a, b), we can control how we move between different iterations. So the same code can be used to check for horizontals, verticals and diagonals.
This is the implementation:
First we define a lambda function for checking one line (can be either horizontal, vertical or diagonal):
代码语言：javascript复制checkLine := func(startRow int, startColumn int, deltaRow int, deltaColumn int) gameResult {
var lastSquare squareState = state.board[startRow][startColumn]
row, column := startRow deltaRow, startColumn deltaColumn
// loop starts from the second square(startRow deltaRow, startColumn deltaColumn)
for row >= 0 && column >= 0 && row < boardSize && column < boardSize {
// there can't be a winner if a empty square is present within the line
if state.board[row][column] == none {
return noWinnerYet
}
if lastSquare != state.board[row][column] {
return noWinnerYet
}
lastSquare = state.board[row][column]
row, column = row deltaRow, column deltaColumn
}
// someone has won the game
if lastSquare == cross {
return crossWon
} else if lastSquare == circle {
return circleWon
}
return noWinnerYet
}
Then we put it inside our checkForWinner() function, alongside some other code to utilize it.
func (state *gameState) checkForWinner() gameResult {
boardSize := len(state.board) // assuming the board is always square-shaped.
// define a lambda function for checking one single line
checkLine := func(startRow int, startColumn int, deltaRow int, deltaColumn int) gameResult {
// ...
}
// check horizontal rows
for row := 0; row < boardSize; row {
if result := checkLine(row, 0, 0, 1); result != noWinnerYet {
return result
}
}
// check vertical columns
for column := 0; column < boardSize; column {
if result := checkLine(column, 0, 0, 1); result != noWinnerYet {
return result
}
}
// check top-left to bottom-right diagonal
if result := checkLine(0, 0, 1, 1); result != noWinnerYet {
return result
}
// check top-right to bottom-left diagonal
if result := checkLine(0, boardSize-1, 1, -1); result != noWinnerYet {
return result
}
// check for draw
for _, row := range state.board {
for _, square := range row {
if square == none {
return noWinnerYet
}
}
}
// if no one wins yet, but none of the squares are empty
return draw
}
The code above uses the same checkLine() routine to check for horizontals, verticals and diagonals.
Putting everything together
Now that we can draw the board, place a mark, switch turns and check for potiential winners, it’s time to put everything together.
代码语言：javascript复制func (e player) String() string {
switch e {
case none:
return "none"
case cross:
return "cross"
case circle:
return "circle"
default:
return fmt.Sprintf("%d", int(e))
}
}
func main() {
state := gameState{}
state.turnPlayer = cross // cross goes first
var result gameResult = noWinnerYet
// the main game loop
for {
fmt.Printf("nnext player to place a mark is: %vn", state.whosNext())
// 1. draw the board onto the screen
state.drawBoard()
fmt.Printf("where to place a %v? (input row then column, separated by space)n> ", state.whosNext())
// 2. use a loop to take input
for {
var row, column int
fmt.Scan(&row, &column)
e := state.placeMark(row-1, column-1) // -1 so coordinate starts at (1,1) instead of (0,0)
// if a valid position was entered, break out from the input loop
if e == nil {
break
}
// if an invalid position was entered, prompt the player to re-enter another position
fmt.Println(e)
fmt.Printf("please re-enter a position:n> ")
}
// 3. check if anyone has won the game
result = state.checkForWinner()
if result != noWinnerYet {
break
}
// 4. if no one has won in this turn, go on for next turn and continue the game loop
state.nextTurn()
fmt.Println()
}
state.drawBoard()
switch result {
case crossWon:
fmt.Printf("cross won the game!n")
case circleWon:
fmt.Printf("circle won the game!n")
case draw:
fmt.Printf("the game has ended with a draw!n")
}
}
Noted that we defined method String() for player type at the beginning.
This is done for the following line of code to work.
代码语言：javascript复制fmt.Printf("nnext player to place a mark is: %vn", state.whosNext())
Defining this method makes type player a Stringer, meaning something that has a String() method and can be converted into a string.
In this case, fmt.Printf uses the method internally to convert a player into a string, then prints it out.
Testing the game
Now we compile and run the game:
代码语言：javascript复制next player to place a mark is: cross
| |
------------
| |
------------
| |
where to place a cross? (input row then column, separated by space)
> 1 1
next player to place a mark is: circle
X | |
------------
| |
------------
| |
where to place a circle? (input row then column, separated by space)
> 1 2
...
next player to place a mark is: cross
X | O | X
------------
O | O | X
------------
| X | O
where to place a cross? (input row then column, separated by space)
> 3 1
X | O | X
------------
O | O | X
------------
X | X | O
the game has ended with a draw!
From another run:
代码语言：javascript复制...
next player to place a mark is: circle
X | X | O
------------
X | O |
------------
| |
where to place a circle? (input row then column, separated by space)
> 3 1
X | X | O
------------
X | O |
------------
O | |
circle won the game!
There you have it, a fully working tic-tac-toe in Go.
